Showing posts with label MILITARY HISTORY( INDIA). Show all posts
Showing posts with label MILITARY HISTORY( INDIA). Show all posts

Wednesday, December 2, 2020

1971 : The Two-Front War That India Fought - Indian Defence Research Wing

 SOURCE:  https://trendypedia.in/the-two-front-war-that-india-fought-indian-defence-research-wing/

                                                      WARNING

To day 49 years ago Pakistan had the audacity to hit me ( Us ) with thousand pounders at the sun set and read what we did to them what now is a HISTORY, I won't be surprised if Pakistan does not mend its ways than I ( We ) should not be blamed if PAKISTAN gets  VAPOURISED   from the world map. 


The Two-Front War That India Fought - Indian Defence Research Wing




SOURCE: SUNDAY GUARDIAN LIVE

The Pakistan Air Force attacked 11 Indian air bases from Jammu and Kashmir to Rajasthan in a preemptive air strike at the sunset of 3 December 1971. It violated Indian airspace with about 50 Sabre jet fighters. This opened up the second front for India in the Indian Western Theatre, ostensibly, to make the Indian armed forces recoil, which were then preparing to march into East Pakistan, as a response to the genocide being committed by the Pakistan Army on the Bengali Muslims there

. Certain preliminary border actions by the Indian Army had already commenced in November 1971. The western Pakistani Forces, primarily composed of Punjabi Muslims were creating mayhem on their Islamic brethren of East Pakistan, located some 1,600 km away, divided by the brilliance of the British. The country, on partition was unequally divided, with 55% population holding onto one-sixth of land area of the nation in the east as compared to the more influential Western Pakistanis holding large jagirs in the West where only 45% of the population resided.

The reason of the violence was clear—that an inferior Bengali Muslim from the East cannot rule Punjabi dominated West, even though a Bengali (Sheikh Mujibur Rehman) had won an election. This triggered a revolution in East Pakistan, a clear demonstration that religion is not enough to hold a nation together. Pakistan did not want India to come in aid of the Bangla resistance movement and expected that India would suffer the burden of millions of refugees silently. Indian patience was running thin under the increasing threats from Pakistan. On 23 November 1971, Indian Army had penetrated East Pakistan’s borders, with certain elements joining their Bangla allies. Emboldened with certain limited successes of the 1965 war and with American support, Pakistan had a false notion that they would be able to pull off an attack on India on the west and release pressure on their forces in East Pakistan where they were running a “scorched earth” policy of killing, looting and raping the Bengali population in millions.

In April 1971, post the hijack of the Indian Airlines Fokker friendship aircraft by Pakistan, which they also set on fire, India responded by closing Indian airspace to Pakistan, debarring them from flying directly to East Pakistan. Pakistani military garrisons in Dhaka, Comilla, Sylhet, Jessore, Rangpur, Bogra, Khulna, Rajshahi and Chittagong had to be sustained from the sea route. Pakistan had to supply jet fuel for its Sabre jets (F86), gasoline for its Chaffee tanks, ammunition for its guns and wheat for West Pakistan’s army. The supplies had to come via a long route, on Pakistani ships and planes, some needing refuelling in Sri Lanka. In mid 1971, the military requirements of transporting 180,000 tons and 120,000 personnel had doubled after Yahya Khan dispatched two additional infantry divisions from West Pakistan, only to be surrounded by the Indian Army later.

In July 1971, General Yahya Khan, warned India that “total war” was very near. Later, in August, he threatened that Sheikh Mujibur Rehman would be given a death sentence, who after winning elections was denied the leadership of Pakistan and was accused of “political betrayal”. He had been put into solitary confinement in Lyallpur. Millions of Bengali Muslim refugees already pouring in from East Pakistan to Indian territory from the beginning of the year, turned into a torrent with Yahya’s announcement. By the end of the year almost 10 million refugees were already in India. India was sympathetic to East Pakistan and could not bear the increasing burden of feeding refugees. Those days vehicles in Pakistan were seen with stickers reading “Crush India”, while in India the stickers on transport read “Liberate Bangladesh”.

The Pakistan Army, facing a backlash, had recruited Bihari Muslims of East Pakistan to kill the Bengali Muslims—a tactic of running a proxy war they had mastered in earlier years. The Indian Army, on invitation and with the tacit approval of the provincial government of Bangladesh (name given during Liberation Struggle), posted some Bengali speaking military officers with small teams in a manner that they could covertly train and equip the Mukti Bahini under the code name of Operation Jackpot. In the wake of India supporting the liberation of Bangladesh, which had already extended assistance to the Bangla refugees, Pakistan threatened India with dire consequences. The then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, had the great challenge of shaping world opinion against Pakistan and support the cause for the creation of Bangladesh. Henry Kissinger made a hurried visit to India to deter, in fact warn India of consequences if India attacked Pakistan. Kissinger then visited Pakistan and from there visited China in Pakistan’s military aircraft on a secret mission asking for Chinese support to Pakistan.

India was certainly in a war-like situation, handling the mass exodus of refugees, a clear case of ethnic cleansing by Pakistan. The world watched this human tragedy quietly. India was frustrated and had no option but to take recourse to military action. General (later Field Marshal) Sam Manekshaw, then COAS, a great professional soldier, had his own mind on picking right time to attack Pakistan, even though he was asked by Indira Gandhi to wage a war in the earlier part of the year. Wary of China, he was looking for winters when China could not open the northern front and soil condition would be fit for Indian tanks to operate. Of course, he had many other reasons to delay. This gave time to India to prepare diplomatically as well as militarily. USSR was the only country that offered to support India. The blocs had shaped up where Pakistan, China and US (leader of NATO) were firmly tied to one side, with India standing alone with ten million Bangla refugees, and was leaning on understanding and support of the USSR.

On 3 December, the attack by Pakistani forces in the western sector gave a legitimate cause for India to attack Pakistan. Emboldened by Chinese and US support, Pakistan was surprised at the speed of Indian counter offensive in the west. Indian Air Force went in for air attacks on the entire front, literally paralysing the Pakistani Air Force. Indian Navy, in a swift attack caused heavy destruction of the Karachi port on 4 December with a repeat on 12 December with many ships, infrastructure and fuel dumps going up in flames each time. Indian Army’s ground operations, though more defensive initially in the west, were soon beating them in every battle. Contrary to the previous war of 1965, which had emphasised set-piece battles and slow advances, this time in the Eastern Sector, strategy adopted by the Indian Army was to undertake a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armoured units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan.
US dispatched its Seventh Fleet with Task Force 74, showing its presence near the Bay of Bengal on 11 December. In its support, the United Kingdom also deployed a Carrier Battle Group led by the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle to the Bay, on her final deployment. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviets dispatched two groups of cruisers and destroyers from Vladivostok, who trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also had a nuclear submarine to help ward off the threat posed by the USS Enterprise task force in the Indian Ocean.
By the second week of December, Pakistani forces were quickly capitulating and falling apart in the East Pakistan. The morale of the Pakistani Army was abysmally low, even with supplies that could have lasted them for months. Their combat units were more than willing to surrender than fight.

The main Indian objective on the eastern front was to capture Dhaka, and on the western front to prevent Pakistan from entering Indian soil. There was no Indian intention of conducting any major offensive into West Pakistan and dismembering it into different states. My unit 22 Maratha LI was involved right from the preliminary operations in East Pakistan prior to the outbreak of open hostilities. Some members of my unit were working closely with Mukti Bahini for months. For conventional operations, the unit was part of 202 Mountain Brigade, initially in reserve, with Brigade task to clear Hilli, a strong point that had to be cleared before advancing towards Rangpur. Pakistan had built a string of well-fortified strong points to defend the border. The BOPs (Border Out Posts) located ahead were cleared during preliminary operations. The attacks launched by other units of the brigade were suffering heavy casualties, who with sheer grit cleared the initial defences with heavy resistance.

My unit was tasked to launch a “silent attack” through the gaps of Pakistan’s 4 Frontier Force Rifles, taking the enemy by surprise which it cleared after some resistance. Once the surprise was lost, the further attack became intense and bloody, with the wiry Marathas slogging it out against the sturdy Pathans from bunker to bunker. The position was captured with heavy casualties on both sides. Post the capture of Hilli, the advance of the brigade towards Rangpur was resumed with the battalion in the lead. A wide outflanking move was undertaken to contact the Rangpur Defences. The enemy being encircled was petrified and began to surrender. The Indian Army was making such advances from all directions.

The paradrop of 2 Para (now Special Forces) at Tangail helped speed up operations towards final capture of Dhaka. By 12 December, Pakistani units still intact, began to willingly lay down arms in front of an increasing strength of Indian troops. On 16 December, Pakistan surrendered all troops located in East Pakistan. Many Pakistani Air Force officers, to save their lives, abandoned their missions and flew their planes into Burma. Similarly, many Pakistani fighter pilots in the western front also escaped and landed their planes in neighbouring Iran. Certain fighter planes supplied by the Middle East and Arab countries to Pakistan without pilots were left on Pakistani runways without being used. The Pakistan military led by Lt Gen A.A.K. Niazi, surrendered at the feet of the Indian forces. Over 90,000 Pakistan personnel (mostly from Pakistan Army) were taken prisoners of war (PoW) by the Indian Army. This was the greatest numbers of prisoners taken in the history of war between two countries ever. No wonder the Pakistan Army uses proxy warriors to fight its battles.

On the western front, certain critical areas had been captured by the Indian Army around Turtuk, Kargil and Kashmir, redefining the Cease Fire Line (CFL) into Line of Control (LoC). The Indian forces captured around 15,000 sq km of land in the west. The Shimla Agreement was signed as a gesture of goodwill where India decided to return the territory captured across the International Border. Territory captured in Jammu and Kashmir was retained by both sides and a new Line of Control was defined up to map reference NJ 9842 in the North. All PoWs were returned to Pakistan within five months, and those charged with war crimes were granted amnesty. Pakistan did not reciprocate the goodwill and has not returned 54 Indian PoWs still languishing in Pakistani jails.

Pakistan sought to have a diversified foreign policy, as Pakistani geo-strategists had been shocked that both China and the United States provided limited support to Pakistan during the course of the war, with the US displaying inability to supply weapons that Pakistan needed the most. The US at best encouraged other countries to help Pakistan with hardware.
Today, 49 years later, while the global dynamics around the subcontinent have changed, India continues to have adversaries in Pakistan and China, and have fought five wars with them. The US has realised the worthlessness of having untrustworthy friends; Pakistan has exported terrorism to the world while selling lies on fighting the War on Terrorism (GWOT) in support of the US. The Chinese have hurt US interests by stealing technology and pirating their intellectual property. China has challenged the US in every field, lately even military. Pakistan has become a vassal state of China and does its bidding. US and Russia relations continue to remain strained but are less serious from the years of cold war. In their case deterrence has worked towards keeping them away from a direct military confrontation, albeit taking opposite sides in global conflicts.

The current India-China-Pakistan conflict remains on the edge given their disputed borders and existence of historical fault lines. How these fronts and collusion pan out in the future need deliberate analysis. The current standoff on the LAC is still in the realm of conventional engagement, while “hybrid wars” are at play and are replacing the conventional. Regional peace can be ensured in remaining prepared for war and “securing peace through strength”. The next “two-front war” under a nuclear overhang and based on high technology will be more complex. Such wars would involve and impact every citizen of the countries involved. Devastation would be colossal and unavoidable. Only the maturity of global leaders can save the day for humanity.

                                     _________________________________

Lt Gen P.J.S. Pannu (Retd) is an officer of 22 Maratha LI, who has commanded his unit and Brigade at Uri (J&K), Division on the LAC (Arunachal Pradesh) and 14 Corps in Ladakh. He is also the former DG Infantry and Deputy Chief IDS, responsible for raising the Space and Cyber Agencies and Special Operations Division. He is a distinguished fellow of the USI.


Tuesday, May 31, 2016

MILITARY HISTORY :FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT 1526




BATTLE REPORT # V - PANIPAT 1526 (re-done)

Discussion in 'Military History & Tactics' started by AUSTERLITZ, Dec 9, 2015.


Source:

http://defence.pk/threads/battle-report-v-panipat-1526-re-done.412504/#ixzz4AFqfLNOB







SOURCE:
http://defence.pk/threads/battle-report-v-panipat-1526-re-done.412504/#ixzz43MeCz7nd

http://defence.pk/threads/battle-report-v-panipat-1526-re-done.412504/



          FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT 1526









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BACKGROUND :

Panipat has been described as the pivot of Indian history for 300 years. And its story begins in the first great battle of 1526. After the fall of the sayyids, the Afghan Lodi dynasty had seized power at Delhi. The power of the sultanate had decreased considerably at this time, though the sultan could still command significant resources. Ibrahim lodi, the third ruler was unpopular with the nobility for his persecution and execution of a large number of old nobles. A prominent noble,Daulat  khan fearing for his life appealed to Zahir-ud-din Babur, the Timurid  ruler of Kabul to come and depose Ibrahim  Lodi. It was thought that Babur would defeat lodi, plunder and leave. Babur however had different ideas.

Babur,a timurid prince with descent from Timur and Chingiz khan had originally inherited the kingdom of fergana  -one of the breakaway regions in the aftermath of the breakup of the once mighty timurid  empire. The 2 foremost powers in the region at this time were the Safavids of Iran and The Uzbeks of central asia. Squeezed between them babur had to fight for survival.Gaining and losing Samarkand 3 times he eventually moved to Kabul in 1504,where he aimed to consolidate a  powebase. It was here that he came into touch with India and between 1504 and 1524 had raided across the North-West frontier 4 times. His main goal at this time was to consolidate his position in Afghanisthan  by crushing the rebellious pathan tribes of the region, particularly the Yusufzais. Having given up his aspirations of retaking Samarkand in 1512 he now dreamed of a new empire east of the Indus, and bided his time for an oppurtunity. In the Baburnama he writes that as these territories were once conquered by timurlane he felt it was his natural birthright and he resolved to acquire them by force if necessary.The invitation of the Afghan chiefs provided him with this opportunity.



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(India 1525 & Babur's Invasion route - The delhi sultanate and rajputs under Rana sanga were the 2 major powers in north india.South india being dominated by the deccan sultanates and Vijaynagar)​



BABUR'S INVASION :

Babur started for Lahore, Punjab, in 1524 but found that Daulat Khan Lodi had been driven out by forces sent by Ibrahim Lodi. When Babur arrived at Lahore, the Lodi army marched out and was routed. Babur burned Lahore for two days, then marched to Dipalpur, placing Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of Lodi's, as governor.There after he returned to Kabul to gather reinforcements.Alam Khan was quickly overthrown and fled to Kabul. In response, Babur supplied Alam Khan with troops who later joined up with Daulat Khan and together with about 30,000 troops, they besieged Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi. He defeated them and drove off Alam's army , Babur realized Lodi would not allow him to occupy Punjab.Meanwhile Alam also demanded Babur assign Delhi to him after its capture,which was not acceptable to Babur.In 1525 November ,Babur set out in force to seize the empire he sought.Crossing the Indus a census of the army revealed his core fighting force numbering 12,000.This number would grow as it joined his garrison in Punjab and some local allies or mercenaries to around 20,000 at Panipat.Entering Sialkot unopposed he moved on to Ambala.His intelligence alerted him that Hamid Khan was about to reinforce Lodi's force with a contingent,he sent his son Humayun to defeat his detatchment at Hisar Firoza.From Ambala the army moved south to Shahabad, then east to reach the River Jumna opposite Sarsawa.



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At the same time Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi, had gathered his army and was advancing slowly north from Delhi, eventually camping somewhere close to Panipat. Late in March 1526 Ibrahim decided to send a small force across the Yamuna into the Doab (the area between the Yamuna and the Ganges).Babur learnt of this when he was two days south of Sarsawa, and decided to send a raiding force across the river to attack this detachment.His right wing had won the victory on 26 February, and so this time he detached his left wing, once again reinforced with part of the centre, so the two armies may have been about the same size. Babur's men crossed the Jumna at midday on 1 April, and advanced south during the afternoon.At day-break on 2 April Babur's men reached the enemy camp. Daud Khan and Hatim Khan would appear to have been caught by surprise and attacked before they could form their men up into a proper line. Babur's men quickly broke their resistance, and chased Ibrahim's men until they were opposite Ibrahim's main camp. Hatim Khan was one of 60-70 prisoners captured, along with 6 or 7 elephants. Just as after the battle on 26 February most of the prisoners were executed, again to send a warning to Ibrahim's men.


 After this victory Babur continued to advance south, reaching Panipat on 12 April.Here Babur recieved news of the apparent huge size of Lodi's army and began to take defensive measures.He was confident in his troops,the core of which were battle hardened veterans , loyal friends to him through thick and thin.He also enjoyed a solid rapport with his men and treated them on a equal footing.Anyone could dine at his table.Ibrahim lodi however was facing dissension in ranks.He even had to resort to distributing riches to encourage his troops and promised more.Personally brave,ibrahim was an inexperienced commander and quite vain which upset some of the afghan nobility. For eight days Both armies stood facing each other without making a decisive move. Finally Babur in an attempt to goad Lodi into attacking him ordered a night raid by 5000 picked horsemen.However the attack faltered badly,and the Mughals narrowly escaped.


 
Elated by his success,Lodi now advanced to meet Babur's forces on the fields of Panipat.


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                  THE OPPOSING ARMIES



THE AFGHAN SULTANATE ARMY :

The Delhi sultanate armies had traditionally been based around cavalry.To this the addition was made of the Indian war elephant.The Elephant and horse formed the 2 pillars of sultanate military strength.The army would be based on a quasi-feudal structure.A small central force uder the Sultan's direct control at Delhi supplemented by large number of contingents brought by the different afghan chiefs or Jagirdars,plus Jagirdars(turkish) and indian feudal levies and mercenaries(largely infantry).There was no gunpowder artillery and infantry was very much a cannon-fodder force. Ibrahim Lodi was at this time involved in attempts at centralization which was unpopular amongst his chieftains.Ibrahim Lodi's army at Panipat may be estimated at 50,000 men and 400 war elephants.Perhaps 25,000 of these were heavy cavalry predominantly afghan ,rest being feudal levies or mercenaries of less value



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Heavy Cavalry - 



 The afghans were not a steppe people and thus didn't master horse archery.Rather they relied on heavy shock cavalry as the basis of their military power.Above shows the equipment of an afghan mailed heavy lancer.To the left is one wearing the standard plate-chainmail hybrid armour of the day.To the right is iron lamellar armour.Both would have been in use ,though mail would have predominated.2 in the second picture depicts a typical afghan mailed lancer in action.They were a redoubtable foe and under Sher shah proved could easily turn the tables on the Mughals.

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Ghulam Armoured cavalry,standard melee cavalry of the Delhi sultanate since the time of the Ghurids. These would have changed little since the early days of the sultanate except perhaps in armour. Even though the turks were no longer in power at delhi, most Turkish  jagirdars would be bringing cavalry  replicas of similar type. Armed with Shield,lance, Mace and scimitar.
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Ibrahim's Primary shock force was his 400+ armoured elephants.

 A terrifying shock weapon as well as mobile fortress,used properly they were a formidable problem.They mounted a mahout and 2-3 infantrymen with spears and bows.Against the earlier mongol invasions of the delhi sultanate under the khiljis,the combination of armoured elephants and Sultanate cavalry had proved too much even for the mongols.However this descendant of genghis had something-that the earlier chagatai mongols didn't have - Cannons.





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SULTANATE INFANTRY :

India's humid climate, the impact of archery and the dominating presence of war elephants didn't allow the development of heavily armoured infantry or  pikemen  in packed formations as in europe. Infantry were very much cannon fodder. Lodi's army would have consisted of several types of infantry, infantry itself being held in low regard during his period.

 1.The afghan chiefs would have brought with them along with their mounted retainers, Pashtun tribal foot infantrymen armed with an assortment of weapons including axes, swords and spears.May or may not be armoured according to wealth.


 2.Muslim foot archers armed with the composite bow and a sword.(seen above left)


 3.Bumi feudal levies conscripted by the local zamindars/chieftains making up the numbers.Generally no armour,a traditional bamboo longbow(inferior than the composite bow but more durable and easier to obtain) and a broadsword.Mercenaries might have armour. 





AFGHAN TACTICS :

The battle formation consisted of the traditional five-fold divisions - the vanguard, the right, the left,the centre and the rear.Sultan stood at the centre with a picked body of cavalry.Skirmishing and night raids were common.The Afghans based their battle tactics around the shock strike forces of their elephants and heavy cavalry. Brute force in massed frontal assaults on the flat plains were therefore key elements of Ibrahim lodi's plan.A considerable part of this army was feudal contingents from the various nobles,they were thus not drilled nor trained to work in co-operation with the whole body,and suffered from lack of manuevreability.


They were however well equipped and courageous,if lacking the discipline of the veteran baburids.They also had no understanding of the Tulughma tactics of Central Asia.



                                          THE MUGHUL ARMY




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(Baburid shock cavalry)



THE MUGHUL ARMY :


Babur's army consisted of turks,mongols,iranians and afghans.It was built as a veteran core which had been campaigning alongside him for over a decade and thus the troops and commanders were confident,and familiar with each other.It also had an element of equality where any trooper could dine with babur or give his opinion on tactics in contrast with the tiered hierarchy in the sultanate army.And they were campaigning far away from home,where defeat would mean annihilation with nowhere to retreat.All these factors contributed to better morale.

The army was organized along timurid lines -units of 10,50,100,500,1000.
Army at Panipat numbered 15,000-20,000 men.


 The bulk of them timurid cavalry,supplemented by turkish gunners with gunpowder matchlocks and cannons-till now an unknown feature on the indian battlefield.

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CAVALRY -

Cavalry was the centrepiece of the mughul army.Babur's horsemen would have been composed of Horse archers - mainly mongols recruited from moghulistan in central asia and masters of steppe warfare and also turks and heavy melee cavalry(who may also use bows).Even the horseachers in the mughul army wore full armor.Lamellar armour was in extensive use alongside chainmail-plate hybrid armours.(so called 'mirror' armor).First picture on top shows baburid shock cavalry using lances ,swords.They usually wear mailshirts beneath a padded jacket on top.On the right is a light horseman with scimitar.Second picture above shows a cavalryman in lamellar armour and lance on the left,he is fully capable of acting as a horse archer.On the right is pure heavy cavalryman in mail armour(mail more suited to close combat)with straight sword and batle-axe.


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Mughul Horse Archer in full armour and composite bow to his side.




 A product of steppe warfare,horse archers were the primary cause of the superiority of nomadic armies in the age of cavalry and among the most effective troop types in military history.Though the afghans had excellent horsemen as well,they relied on heavy mailed cavalry over mounted archers.They were masters of ambushes,raiding,feigned retreats.The deadliest mughul weapon was the Turco-Mongol Composite bow.Generally capable of shooting 3 times faster than a matchlock it was in the hands of a veteran horse archers possible to launch volleys of 6 shots in 20 seconds.It was accurate upto 70-100 yards and still dangerous upto 200 yards.Babur employed his horse archers to the flanks and in front of his army as a screen.

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At the back -Timurid Horse archer on his mount.Standing in front is a Turkish 'Turkhaan' or hero-an elite Mounted trooper in full body armour and faceplate -usually a member of the commander's bodyguard or a captain of a unit.In front is an elite infantryman of the guard (Shamshirbaaz) with sword,shield and bow.Babur's cavalry was battle-hardened and well-drilled.




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INFANTRY -

Babur's infantry was of 2 main types. Footarchers armed with composite bows and a secondary weapon and more importantly Matchlock musketeers. Ratio of archers to matchlockmen was 4:1.Both weapons had about the same effective range of 100 yds .But bowmen had almost 3 times the rate of fire while matchlocks had unparalleled armour  penetration and lethality,capable of stopping a horse or even an elephant dead in its tracks. Matchlock musketeers were called Tufang or Bunduqchi and used a protective mantlet as cover when firing the weapon. Matchlockmen in babur's service were mostly turkish origin.

Gunpowder weapons were introduced in central asia by the Mongols who brought them from china,but these were very rudimentary mainly siege devices.The ottomans developed gunpowder weapons quite early along with the europeans.In the first decades of the 16th century the newly equipped ottoman gunpowder armies inflicted stunning defeats on their safavid rivals who in a crash programme equipped themselves with similar weapons.Babur who was in intimate contact with safavid military developments at this time possibly acquired these weapons in the same manner.



ARTILLERY :

Babur began a new epoch in indian military history with the introduction of field artillery which he would use to devastating impact.Four the basic models were used by Babur—the zarb-zan, (light cannon), kazan, (heavy cannon), kazan-i-bozorg (siege gun) and firingi (swivel/anti-personnel gun) with only the first 2 types present at Panipat.Babur’s artillery used only stone shot.Stone was cheap and plentiful, but the production of stone cannon balls was extremely labor intensive. Metal was more expensive, but metal shot was much easier to make. Stone projectiles were not as dense as metal and transferred less energy to the target, but they might also shatter on impact, producing lethal shrapnel as a secondary effect. Metal ammunition did have one very important advantage—it could be made hollow. When left empty such projectiles were lighter and could travel further. When loaded with gunpowder, they could be fused to explode on impact.They were not horse drawn but rather mounted on carriages.Babur had 20 cannons at Panipat.


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MUGHUL TACTICS:

Babur's tactics at Panipat showed the influence of a mix of 2 military traditions - The Ottoman and the Mongol-timurid.The use of wagon carts as battlefield defenses was first pioneered by the Hussite rebels of Europe under Jan Zizka,though the Hungarians it was transmitted to the Ottomans who made it the centrepiece of their tactical system - The Tabur Cengi( camp battle).Even previously the ottomans employed infantry in the centre behind natural defenses to act as a pivot flanked by mobile cavalry wings,an advance guard and a reserve to the rear as demonstrated at Nicopolis.The adoption of the cart-wagon line allowed them to create artificial defenses for their infantry now.These tactics were used to devastating effect vs the safavids in 1514 and against the hungarians at Mohacs in 1526.It was through his turkish gunners that Babur came to be acquainted with this system of battle.

Below- On top the Ottoman Tabur cengi.Boxes with Diagonal shades -Cavalry.Cross shades -Infantry.Light colour indicates light cavalry or infantry.Akinci light cavalry screens ottoman center deployment,skirmishes the enemy and draws him into attacking the ottoman centre through harassment and feigned retreats.Infantry and artillery in the centre behind wagon ladder defenses.Irregular Azap infantry on the flanks and janissaries with muskets in the centre,cannons spread over the wagon line.Sipahis on both wings..these will conduct the main mobile battle looking to outflank the enemy and push him inwards infront of the janissaries and cannons where they can be mowed down.Generally a reserve of more sipahis to the rear on each wing.Finally the Sultan with his personal household troops -The kapikulu sipahis and a chosen infantry bodyguard as a last reserve.The use of carts in battle is also called Araba.



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The tulughma implied dividing a smaller force into subordinate divisions within the traditional divisions for better manuverability and flexibility. The highly mobile right and left divisions peeled out and surrounded the larger enemy force,especially through employment of flanking parties.The standard Central Asian battle array, or yasal, was divided into four basic parts—the irawul(Harawal) or vanguard, the ghol(Kol) or center, the chadavul or rear guard, and the jaranghar and baranghar—the left and right flanks. During the early expansion of the Turkic and Mongol empires these units were composed almost exclusively of cavalry, but as these states and their rulers became increasingly sedentary, larger numbers of infantry began to appear.

The vanguard was composed primarily of light cavalry and light infantry. It was responsible for scouting and skirmishing.The vanguard acted essentially as a shock absorber for the center, using skirmishing tactics and missile fire to slow and disrupt a frontal assault by enemy heavy cavalry, infantry or elephants. When hard pressed they gradually gave ground and fell back to merge with the main force.Against less aggressive enemies they were tasked with staging harassing attacks followed by feigned retreats designed to lure the opponent into contact with the center and to make them vulnerable to overextension and flanking maneuvers.

The center was the largest component and included the commander’s headquarters and bodyguard.It could in conjunction with the vanguard withstand a frontal assault, fixing the enemy in place for envelopment from the flanks. It was also capable of delivering shock action, either as a first strike or on the counterattack. The rear guard was smaller and could act as a reserve but generally protected the baggage.

The flanking units had the most specialized and demanding task. They were responsible for carrying out the tulughmeh, or encircling maneuver (This term was also used to describe the contingents of soldiers responsible for carrying out that tactic). These groups were comprised exclusively of well trained light cavalry, especially horse archers. Their job was to race around the opposing army’s flanks and towards its rear as it was engaged with the main force.When an army approached an enemy that was stationary or falling back, the flank units often pulled well ahead of the main body as they began their encircling maneuver, so that the entire formation changed its shape to resemble a crescent with the points facing forward.When on the defensive they might initially pull back, “refusing” the flanks and creating an arc facing in the opposite direction.Babur learned the intricacies of this technique in his battles with the Uzbeks.He writes in the Baburnama -

“In battle the great reliance of the Uzbeks is on the tulughmeh. They never engage without using the tulughmeh.'' - Babur


As tactics became more sophisticated particualrly under Timur the larger units were broken down into sub groups which could operate independently.In the picture the standard mughul tulughma formation is shown with qarawal scouts screening,a vanguard ,rightwing and left wing composed of infantry in front and cavalry to the rear. Illtimish Reserves behind each flank.The tulughma flanking parties on the extreme ends.The centre or Kol is divided into 3 divisions -The reserve composing the commander's bodyguard ,The centre right division and the centre left division.Rearguard protects camp.Both the jaranghar and Baranghar wings try to outflank their oppposing flank while the tulughma parties carry out a wide envelopment,centre and vanguard act as a pinning force that can also counterattack frontally.The illtimish reserves behind each flank can reinforce their respective wings or join the flanking movements.Similarly the left centre and right centre can reinforce the wings or take up positions vacated by the wings cavalry while they are carrying out the wheeling movements against the enemy's flanks.


Babur drilled his cavalry regularly to carry out the complex manuevres.

The fusion of these 2 similar tactical systems would be employed by Babur at Panipat.





NEXT : THE BATTLE OF PANIPAT




THE BATTLE OF PANIPAT



[​IMG]
Afghans in Green.Mughuls in Red.


To avoid being outflanked by the large afghan army,Babur anchored his right flank close to the walls of the city of Panipat,while his left flank was protected by a ditch strengthened with a wooden stockade to prevent cavalry movement.

In the centre he had a line of 700 ox-carts tied together with rawhide ropes to breakup any charge.At intervals of 100 to 200 yards there were intervals with passages for cavalry to sally out and attack.These passages were heavily defended with archers and matchlockmen and were were possibly closed with chains(chains being lowered when cavalry sallied out).Behind this protective barrier Babur sited his guns.Between every 2 guns,5-6 protective mantlets behind which matchlockmen were deployed.

Screening these preparations was the Qarawal light cavalry scouts deployed up front.
Behind the infantry and artillery on the cart-line the main body of cavalry was deployed in the standard mughul battle array divided into vanguard,left wing and right wing.(Initials used RW for right wing for eg.).Plus the centre in 3 sub-divisions and the illtimish reserves.(Illtimish = I ,RC = Right centre,LC = Left Centre).Rearguard protects the camp.
At the extreme sides are the tulughma flanking parties (FP).Babur deployed his half-wild Mongol horse archers in these contingents due to their mastery of steppe warfare.

Babur's plan is to hold the afghan mass in front,and roll its wings onto the centre where the whole body would become a concentrated target for his matchlocks,archers and artillery and suffer devastating losses.Humayun leads the right flank,Chin Timur the vanguard and Sultan mirza the left flank.His ottoman gunner Ustad Ali Quli is in charge of the atillery.It is also he who shows babur how to employ the cart-line field fortifications.

Lodi deploys his force in 4 divisions.Two flanks ,a large vanguard and a centre containing much of the inferior infantry.He places himslef at the very centre of the battle line with a body of 5000 picked mailed lancers.In front of his army stands the massive phalanx of 400 armoured war elephants.

[​IMG]
1. As the afghan War elephants move up,they are greeted by the utterly unfamiliar noise of mughul cannons which terrifies them and they refuse to advance further.

2. The Afghan Vanguard clashes with the horse archer screen and sweeps it away,sensing success- the pathans surge forward.The vanguard of the afghans has advanced too quickly,thus creating a gap with the centre which is still far away .

3. The light cavalry of the former qarawal screen withdraw back through the passages and merge with the mughul vanguard.

4.
Lodi aims his attack where the mughul right flank meets panipat,and the Afghan right moves forward in columns to try and outflank the mughal right.Babur observes the afghan body inclined to its left advancing on his right flank and immediately reinforces the flank with its illtimish mobile reserve.




[​IMG]

(The dotted arrows indicate ranged attacks,either bows or artillery and matchlocks.And white boxes previous position of a unit before movement)


1. As the leading elements of the afghan left wing approaches the mughul right,they are taken aback by the wagon line fortifications and hesitate on seeing the mughals reinforcing their right flank.As a result the front ranks halt,throwing the rear ranks already in a cramped space into some disorder.The tulughma flanking parties now wheel and hit them with showers of arrows from the rear.

2. The centre of lodi's vanguard is held up by the concentrated fire from the cart line as the mughul cannons and matchlocks open fire,supported by archers and unable to advance due to the cart line-defenses.The noise and smoke terrifies the afghans.

3. The elephants now under artillery attack and totally unnerved by the sound turn and trample back through the advancing rear ranks of the afghan army, disorganizing and demoralizing it.

4. The mughals begin their celebrated tulughma wheeling manuevre.The right flank reserves move to outflank the Pathan left wing.The afghans now get a taste of the real weapon of the mughals-the deadly turco-mongol composite bow.The afghan heavy cavalry is unable to cope with the mobile timurid horse archers.

5. Babur Piles on the pressure.He dispatches his right centre to join the assault on the afghan left wing.(See how each new reserve takes the place of the preceding formation,as that goes to flank the enemy as if turning a wheel)The afghan left wing is packed into a dense mass,due to the disorder caused by friction between front and rear ranks and becomes a massive target for concentrated mughul firepower from arrows,matchlocks and cannons.They take devastating losses.

6. Similarly on the afghan right wing,the mongol flanking parties bombard the pathans from the rear by wheeling in.
Simultaneously the mughul left wing moves in and joins the fray,even as the mughal gunpowder weapons take a toll on the front.

7. Babur senses a growing panic in the afghan ranks,and orders his left centre and left mobile reserve to sally out through the gaps and join the assault on the afghan right wing.



[​IMG]
1. Bombarded from all sides,unit cohesion breaks down in the sultanate forces- as the aggresively wheeling mughal flanks compress the afghans into a central mass-a perfect killzone for the mughul artillery and gunners.


2. See the mughul taulaghma wheeling manuevre complete on both sides,as the battalions have wheeled almost in synchronization and surrounded the afghan flanks.This exceptional performance was made possible in part by the drilling and combat experience of babur's cavalry.

3. Lodi makes a desperate charge,cutting down quite a few mughals before he is killed.This was perhaps a premature move as he still had many reserves left and babur had nearly none.

4. Lodis' death triggers general collapse and afghans rout.

5.
The second line now disintegrate on hearing of lodi's demise.

Losses
- Afghans suffered 15,000 killed or wounded.The mughuls 4,000


AFTERMATH :

Babur's victory led to the end of the delhi sultanate and the establishment of the Mughul dynasty which was to mark an epoch in the history of medieval india.Babur went on to deal with threats to his position at Khanua against the Rajputs and Gogra against the Afghans,but died before he could consolidate what he had conquered.His son humayun had to deal with a resurgent afghan threat under Sher Shah.The final consolidation of the Mughul Empire was left to Akbar,Babur's grandson.Militarily,the battle of panipat marks the beginning of the gunpowder age in earnest and the end of the age of elephants as the prime weapon of indian warfare.



[​IMG]
 

CAUSES OF MUGHUL SUCCESS :


1. Intelligence - The difference in effiecient intelligence had been apparent.Babur's espionage system allowed him to intercept reinforcements from hamid khan to lodi.While babur continously probed the afghans during the standoff,ibrahim lodi had not sufficiently prepared for the true nature of the Moghul defences and was surprised.His intelligence on babur's army too seems to have been minimal as he gave no thought to effect of cannons on elephants and made them a cornerstone of his tactics.

2. Discipline - Babur's army was by far more disciplined,being able to execute the complex wheeling manuevre flawlessly,while the afghans were thrown into disorder by their own follies and also charged prematurely ahead of the centre.

3. Morale - Morale seems to have been high in babur's camp.Babur treated his soldiers with an air of equality and the mughals were in enemy territory with nowehere to run.Ibrahim Lodis' troops on the other hand ,at least a part of them were discontent and the vanity of lodi himself didn't help matters.The elephant havoc and lodi's death were the last straw.

4. Technology -Babur's forces had the next generation of weapons technology available in form of cannons and matchlocks.While these were still primitive in form they rendered the elphants useless and gave babur an edge.

5. Firepower Dominance -While the afghans placed their faith on shock tactics,the mughals enjoyed a total dominance throughout the battle in firepower.The artillery,matchlocks but above all. the turko-mongol composite bow shattered afghan ranks with a ceaseless barrage.Firepower's effect is not only physical,but also psychological-as there is nothing worse to a soldier than to be fired at without being able to reply.

6. Surprise - Babur's unorthodox tactics.The use of the cart line and the artillery placement and the Tulughma flanking attacks,befuddled the afghans.These were things not seen before in the subcontinent's battlefields.

7. Failure of Elephants - The reverse rout of the elephants trampling through their own ranks,totally ruined afghan rear ranks cohesion and was a major reason why they never participated in the battle.But the elephant was a weapon of a bygone age.

8. Ibrahim's Death - Lodis' charge was premature and unnecessary,while things were desperate upfront,he still had his centre division-shaken and albeit disorganized ,but intact.He would have better served to rally his reserve and assault the flanking mughal columns.If he had lived another hour,the mughals may have lost the battle as babur had minimal reserves left and the mughals too had suffered heavy causalities.

9. Security - To Napoleon - ''The whole art of war consists of a well-thought out and extremely circumspect defensive,followed by a rapid and audacious counterattack''.Babur's tactics at Panipat were a perfect balance between caution and aggression.He secured his flanks with natural or artificial obstacles and his centre with this cart-line offsetting the afghan advanatge in numbers.

[​IMG]


........................................................................... X-----------------X ................................................................................

Sources
-
Cannons versus Elephants :The Battles of Panipat - Col.Harjeet Singh
Osprey Men -at Arms - Mughuls


 Mughals at War : Andrew De la Garza (Dissertation paper)
Baburnama


Source:

 http://defence.pk/threads/battle-report-v-panipat-1526-re-done.412504/#ixzz43MxE6cs0
































 

Monday, May 2, 2016

HISTORY :List of Wars Involving India

SOURCE:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_India




              List of Wars Involving India

[ CONNECT WITH :
 




From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   
This is a historical overview of armed conflicts involving India since the founding of the British Raj.


Wars in the Indian subcontinent[edit]

 
 
 
The following is an exhaustive list of wars and conflicts that were fought in the historic Indian subcontinent. The wars listed below involve three of the prominent empires to rule over the subcontinent — The Mauryas, Mughals and the Marathas. The Company rule in India is also included.



Empire of India (1858–1947)[edit]

Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the rule of the British East India company came to end and the British crown now began to rule over India directly as per the Government of India Act 1858 through the British Raj. India was now a single empire comprising British India and the Princely states. The Indian Empire was officially created by British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli for Queen Victoria in 1876 and she was crowned Empress of India.


StartFinishName of ConflictBelligerentsOutcome
AlliesOpponent(s)
18561860Second Opium WarUnited Kingdom British Empire

France French Empire
 ChinaVictory
18631864Ambela Campaign IndiaAfghan Pashtuns
Yusufzai tribes
Victory



  • Bunerwals surrender.
  • Malka burned.
18641865Bhutan War IndiaFlag of Bhutan (1949-1956).svg BhutanVictory


  • Bhutanese territorial cessions to India.
18671868British Expedition to AbyssiniaUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
Flag of Ethiopia (1897-1936; 1941-1974).svg Ethiopian EmpireVictory



  • British victory at the Battle of Magdala, Theodore II commits suicide.
18781880Second Anglo-Afghan WarUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
Flag of Afghanistan (1880–1901).svg AfghanistanVictory
  • Treaty of Gandamak, British objectives attained.
  • Afghanistan's tribal frontier areas annexed into British India.
  • Afghanistan becomes a British Protectorate.
18811899Mahdist WarUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
 Egypt
Ethiopian Pennants.svg Ethiopia
Mahdist SudanVictory
1882Anglo-Egyptian WarUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
Flag of Egypt (1882-1922).svg Tewfik Pasha
Flag of Egypt (1882-1922).svg Ahmed OrabiVictory
1885Third Anglo-Burmese War IndiaFlag of the Alaungpaya Dynasty of Myanmar.svg Burmese EmpireVictory
  • The province of Burma became part of the British Raj.
1888Third Black Mountain Expedition IndiaHassanzai and Akazai tribes.Victory
  • Allaiwal village of Pokal occupied and destroyed.
1888Sikkim Expedition IndiaTibet TibetVictory
  • Tibetan forces expelled from Sikkim.
1891Hunza-Nagar Campaign IndiaHunza
Nagar
Victory
1895Chitral Expedition IndiaChitralis Bajouri and Afghan TribesmenVictory
  • Fort of Chitral relieved.
1896Anglo-Zanzibar War British Empire
Zanzibar SultanateVictory
1896Tochi Expedition IndiaWazirisVictory
  • Rebellion put down.
1897Siege of Malakand Indiaپشتون Pashtun tribesVictory
  • Siege successful.
18971898First Mohmand Campaign India MohmandsVictory
18971898Tirah Campaign IndiaAfridis
Orakzais
Chamkanis
Victory
  • Negotiations for peace were then begun with the Afridis.
18991901Boxer RebellionEmpire of Japan Empire of Japan
Russian Empire Russia
British Empire United Kingdom
France France
 United States
German Empire Germany
 Austria-Hungary
Kingdom of Italy Italy
Yihetuan Movement
 China
Victory
  • The rebellion was suppressed.
  • Signing of the Boxer Protocol.
  • Provisions for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing.
18991902Second Boer War United Kingdom
 Orange Free State
 South African Republic
Victory
19031904British expedition to Tibet India TibetVictory
1906Bambatha RebellionUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
Zulu peopleVictory
  • Rebellion suppressed
19141918World War I France
 United Kingdom
 Russian Empire
 Italy
 United States
 Serbia
 Japan
 Belgium
 Greece
 Romania
 Portugal
 Brazil
 Germany
 Austria-Hungary
 Ottoman Empire
 Bulgaria

South African Republic South African Republic
Victory
19181920Allied intervention in the Russian Civil WarRussia White movement
United Kingdom British Empire
 Japan
 Czechoslovakia
 Greece
 Poland
 United States
France France
 Romania
 Serbia
 Italy
Republic of China (1912–49) China
 Russian SFSR
 Far Eastern Republic
Latvian SSR
Ukrainian SSR
Commune of Estonia
Mongolian communists
Withdrawal
  • Allied withdrawal from Russia.
  • Bolshevik victory over White Army.
19191923Turkish War of Independence Greece
France France
Armenia Armenia
 United Kingdom
Georgia
Turkey Ankara Government
Turkey Kuva-yi Milliye
Armistice [1]
1919Third Anglo-Afghan WarUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
Flag of Afghanistan (1919–1921).svg AfghanistanArmistice
  • Treaty of Rawalpindi
  • Afghan invasion repelled.
  • Afghanistan regains control of external affairs.
  • Reaffirmation of the Durand Line.
1919First Waziristan Campaign IndiaFlag of Waziristan resistance (1930s).svg WaziristanVictory
  • Suppression of insurrection by independent Wazir tribes.
19191920Kuwait–Najd WarBritish Empire United Kingdom
Kuwait
Flag of the Second Saudi State.svg Sultanate of Nejd
Victory
  • Ikhawan retreat.
1920Iraqi revoltUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
Iraqi rebelsVictory
1921Malabar rebellion IndiaMappila MuslimsVictory
  • Rebellion suppressed.
1925Pink's War IndiaMahsud tribesmenVictory
  • Tribal leaders accept terms.
1935Second Mohmand Campaign India MohmandsVictory
19361939Second Waziristan Campaign IndiaFlag of Waziristan resistance (1930s).svg Waziri tribesmenVictory
  • Suppression of insurrection by independent Wazir tribes.
19391945World War II Soviet Union
 United States  United Kingdom
 Republic of China
 South Africa
 Australia
 Canada
 New Zealand
 France
 Poland
 Yugoslavia
 Greece
 Denmark
 Norway
 Netherlands
 Belgium
 Luxembourg
 Czechoslovakia
 Germany
 Italy
 Japan
 Hungary
 Romania
 Bulgaria
Victory
19451947Indonesian National RevolutionNetherlands Netherlands
United Kingdom United Kingdom
Indonesia IndonesiaWithdrawal
  • Indian withdrawal after independence in 1947.
  • The Netherlands recognises Indonesian independence.
19451946Operation MasterdomUnited Kingdom United Kingdom
France France
Japan Japan
Flag of North Vietnam (1945-1955).svg Viet MinhWithdrawal

Dominion of India (1947–1950)[edit]

Following Indian independence, merger of the princely states remained a major question. The partition resulted in the creation of Pakistan.
StartFinishName of ConflictBelligerentsOutcome
AlliesOpponent(s)
19471948Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 India
 Pakistan
Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya 1-2.svg Furqan Force
Ceasefire
1947Indian integration of Junagadh India Junagadh StateVictory
  • Indian annexation of the State of Junagadh
1948Operation Polo India HyderabadVictory
  • Indian annexation of the State of Hyderabad

Republic of India (1950–present)[edit]

India has fought many wars and minor conflicts during its period as a republic.
StartFinishName of ConflictBelligerentsOutcome
AlliesOpponent(s)
1951Operation Tomahawk United Nations
 China
 North Korea
Victory
1954Indian annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli IndiaPortugal Portugal
Victory
19601964Congo CrisisUnited Nations ONUCState of Katanga State of KatangaVictory
1961Invasion of Goa IndiaPortugal Portugal
Victory
  • Incorporation of Goa into India
1962Sino-Indian War India ChinaDefeat
1964PresentInsurgency in Northeast India India
 Bhutan
Ongoing
  • Ongoing low-level insurgency
  • Re-annexation of the territory held by MNF by Indian Army
  • Bhutanese victory in Operation All Clear
  • Introduction of AFSPA in five north-eastern states, later repealed in Tripura[3]
1965Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 India PakistanArmistice
1967PresentNaxalite-Maoist insurgency India Ongoing
1967Cho La incident India ChinaVictory
1971Bangladesh Liberation War India
Flag of Bangladesh (1971).svg Mukti Bahini
 PakistanVictory
1984Operation Blue Star IndiaNishan Sahib.svg Sikh MilitantsVictory
19842003Siachen Conflict India PakistanVictory
  • Indian annexation of the Siachen Glacier following Operation Meghdoot
  • Ceasefire since 2003
  • Low-level conflict ongoing
1986Operation Flowers are Blooming India
 Seychelles
Flag of Seychelles.svg Military of SeychellesVictory
  • Aversion of the coup
  • Resignation of Berlouis
19871990Sri Lankan Civil War India
 Sri Lanka
Tamil TigersWithdrawal
1988Operation Cactus India
Maldives Maldives
Bandera del PLOTE (Tàmils).svg PLOTE
Maldives Maldivian rebels
Victory
  • Restoration of government rule in Maldives
1989Insurgency in Jammu and KashmirFlag of India.svg IndiaFlag of Jihad.svg Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami
Flag of Jihad.svg Lashkar-e-Taiba
Jaishi-e-Mohammed.svg Jaish-e-Mohammed
Flag of Jihad.svg Hizbul Mujahideen
Harakat flag.png Harkat-ul-Mujahideen
Al-badr flag.png Al-Badr
Kashmir independent.svg Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front
Supported by:
 Pakistan[5]
Afghanistan Taliban[6]
Flag of Jihad.svg al-Qaeda[6]
Ongoing
1999Kargil War India PakistanVictory
2009Operation Ocean Shield NATO
 Japan
 Somalia
 India
 New Zealand
 Saudi Arabia
 Ukraine
 South Korea
Somalia Somali PiratesOngoing
  • Operations ongoing

See also[edit]